Understanding The Context Of Securitization Theory Philosophy Essay

Understanding The Context Of Securitization Theory Philosophy Essay all over the last decade, contemporary earnest studies witnessed a fundamental attempt by various social constructivist approaches to re- archetypeualize the traditional notion of security de situationment as a perception of objective threat, and redefine the hypothetic agenda of security studies. whizz of the most influential and eminent analytical frameworks among these approaches, the securitization possibility, developed by Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, and their associates from what came to be later known as the Copenhagen School, based the importee of security upon the socially constructed pr deedice among moldors. The core hypothesis of the Copenhagen School rests with the designation of securitization as adiscoursive process through which an intersubjective understanding is constructed in spite of appearance a political fellowship to treat something as an existential threat to a valued denotive object, and to enable a call for urgent and exceptional measures to deal with the threat.1Thus, triple-crown securitization encompasses three inextricable components existential threats, catch coiffeion, and effect on inter-unit dealing by breaking free of rules.2This, however, leads to an epistemological dilemma of whether the main objective of securitization theory is to focalization on the rescue prompt as a creative force of security or to relate the inducement of security articulations to the context in which an interplay of the securitizing participant and a applicable inter resume takes its place. In other words, the enduring problem in the analytical framework of the securitization theory is what or who decisively invokes the move beyond the sphere of normal administration the voice communication communication act itself or the context in which relevant impostors interacts.Consequently, this theoretical problem triggered dickens distinct interpretations of securitiza tion theory. The first interpretation adhered to a kinda internalist reading of securitization cl graveling that the security can be understood as a self-referential activity,3while the second stand top dog, labeled externalist, correctly pointed out that the Copenhagen School broadly speaking put aside the contextual aspects in the analytical framework of the securitization theory, and in contrast proposed a inventionion of security as an intersubjective process4. The internalist point of view, narrowly based on the poststructuralist reading of securitization, is focused on the speech act event, and is anchored in the notion of a performativity, i.e. a result of the securitization is driven by the spring of the act itself. In contrast, the externalist perspective rests with a to a greater extent complex understanding of the securitization as a process of interactions amid the consultation and the securitizing actor through which a meaning of security is brought to existence. In particular, the power assert that the determinant power inherent in the discourse creates an exceptionality modus, whereas the latter(prenominal) link the effects of securitization to the context in which an interplay betwixt the securitizing actor and a relevant audience occurs.The internalist understanding of the securitization theory rests with Waevers interpretation in Securitization and Desecuritization where it is, by drawing on John L. Austins impression of performative observations,5claimed that the mere utterance of security is more than just saying or portraying an event, but playing an action that moves an issue beyond normal politics.6Whether this utterance of security is link to a particular context in which a stimulus triggers a response is irrelevant for the internalists. Contrary to the externalist argument that the communication between the dominance and a respective audience enables the endowment of extraordinary measures, the internalists downplay the federal agency of the context to the performative force of the speech act to impose an extraordinary business office and create a security. In particular, by referring to Derridas claim that there is nobody outside the text, the internalist understanding of the securitization concludes that the indeterminate dis status of a speech act itself has a power to create new circumstances in a broader social framework. More unique(predicate)ally, it is not the sender-responder relation that bears authority in solemn the exceptional conditions, as the externalists suggest, but rather it is about the very nature of the performative speech act that constitutes not completely new meaning, but withal the social actors and reality.7However, this particular perspective on the determinacy of the situation by merely uttering the speech act has two shortcomings. Firstly, given the nature of the performative act which is in the internalist notion solely regarded as the language-discoursive fr amework, one can argue that this is only one means through which the meaning of security is constructed. More specifically, the speech act of securitization cannot be reducible to verbal phrases or rhetoric, because what portrays something or mortal as an existential threat is a broader performative act composed of unalike contextual and symbolic patterns that increase the overall effectiveness of an appeal for emergency measures. As Michael Williams shrewdly notes, the television images of 9/11 destruction, casualties and human pitiful have considerably contributed to the dominant perceptions of security and to a construction of a necessary response to an existential threat.8Secondly, it is not the utterance of performative act that creates a meaning of security, but rather the routinized practices of the bureaucratic machinery and professional managers of unease use to various issue argonas that allow the act to urge an embracement of extraordinary measures.9In particular, surv eillance practice, the control of borders or immigration policy is an ultimate aim behind the use of language by networks of security professionals that generate specific meaning of (in) security.Related to the second shortcoming, the externalist reading of securitization contributes to the debate by adding a social and political context in which the practice is exercised by relevant social structures. In ecumenical, by referring to the concepts of the audience and the facilitating conditions suggested by Buzan et al. (1998) in Security A New Framework for Analysis, the externalist understanding transfers the creation of the meaning from the speech act to the intersubjective level of analysis. Thus, rather than reducing the securitization to a discoursive event, the externalist understanding draws on a broader conception-a dynamics between the securitizing actor initiating the speech act, and a relevant audience accepting or refusing it.10The interpretation and depiction of the ex istential threat are, in other words, negotiated between the actor and a respective audience. Nevertheless, although the speech act is enacted and introduced by the authoritative actor, it is the audience in this relationship that decides whether the discourse lead be accepted as an appropriate narrative.11In addition, following the concept of facilitating conditions the exceptionalist logic infers that the possibility of a successful securitization act go out matter on whether the audience recognizes the conventional procedures within the performative act, and whether the securitizing actor holds a mooring of authority.12Nevertheless, some(prenominal) concepts (the audience and the facilitating conditions) are theoretically underdeveloped leaving many epistemological gaps in the analytical framework of the securitization. Firstly, even if one identifies a relevant audience, the question remains why and how the receivers will react to the utterance of the act. Although coercion or brute force may in general be effective, in order to maintain credibility the securitizing actor will particularly need to identify his/her move beyond normal politics with the audiences values, norms, interests and feelings. Thus the content of the performative message would need to be contingent upon the deterrent example justification corresponding to what is generally perceived as legitimate by the audience, and upon the approval of the legal authority.13Yet, it still remains unclear what constitutes the broader socio-political basis for the securitizing actor to claim authority to impose measures and for the audience to conform to the language of the act. However, the concept of facilitating conditions is a rather objectivist, to the extent that it posits the discoursive process inside the exogenously given actor-audience structure and at the same time it is static, in terms of reducing a securitization to a mere event dependent on the stimulus-response pattern. To compreh ensively collar the essence of the securitization, one therefore needs to move beyond both internalist and externalist understanding and analyze the audiences expectations, the actors authority and a meaning of the speech act as embedded in social relations of meaning and power that constitutes both actors and speech acts.14The seemingly unavoidable gap between the two understandings may be bridged through the internalist-externalist distinction developed by Holger Stritzel who seeks to establish a context in which the actor, an audience and the speech act are embedded as mutually constitutional and non-separable relations. The context in this view is constituted of two dimensions social-linguistic, referring to the networks of constitutive rules and narratives that surround a single linguistic act and socio-political, i.e. structures from which the power to influence the process of constructing meaning is derived15. Consequently, the power tie-in of the three elements of securit ization is interlinked with the two dimensions through the constitution of three forces of securitization the performative force of the speech act (internalist), its embeddedness in the existing discourse (externalist) and the positional power of actors who play the meaning (internalist-externalist).16What Stritzel effectively achieves with his analytical framework is three-fold firstly, the moving from the given meaning of the threat to the meaning generated by the dynamic social interactions secondly, the interrelatedness between the text of the speech act and the discoursive practices add a missing part to the internalist notion of the speech act as an utterance itself finally, the power position of the actor that underpins his/her authority departs from both the inclusive nature of the linguistic concept of power outlined by the internalist reading, and the exogenously defined relationship between the actor and the audience proposed by the externalist understanding of securitiz ation.In conclusion, the epistemological division between the internalist and the externalist view, as shrewdly suggested by Stritzel, may be bypassed through the validation of interconnectidness between the language act and actors/audience within the mutually constitutive social context. Nevertheless, the dilemma about which element decisively constitutes the security persists within the securitization theory. As McDonald effectively put it, the incoherence within the existing analytical framework of securitization theory will lead to the downplay of either the performative effects of the speech act or the inter-subjective nature of security.17Therefore, a closer focus on different empirical cases may provide useful insights into the rugged of the speech act-actor-audience triangle, and moreover contribute to the analytical framework of securitization theory.

Capitalism And Consumerism Of Society

capitalisticicic prudence And Consumerism Of SocietyPresent golf-club in the westward is modifyd by a capitalist stinting establishment that is founded on mystical ownership of berth and a profit driven economy. This economy has then produced few super rich mortals and further stratified the western caller, (Banish the bloated oerclass, p. 71). Capitalism is different to a lovingist economic system where ownership of property is by the state or commun totallyy (Shachtman, p.96). The profit driven economy encourages businesses and enterprises to exploit the market for the sole purpose of making a profit. The trade strategies of capitalist economy see therefore created a auberge of consumers whose benefit is done consumption on the individual level while the monetary simoleons go to the capitalists.Capitalism has created a society that consumer establish and the parvenu phenomenon has been labelled as consumerism. Consumerism has extended even into those argonas, whi ch were previously under state understand as opposed to be under the visualise of private corporations. These take on the health sector and education among former(a)s. The presence of numerous corporations which return all kinds of services and merchandise have expanded the resources easy to consumers. This has created socie plug intos, which atomic number 18 based on consumerism as opposed to the earlier societies, which were work based.A consumer society kindle be identified by the consumption habits of individuals while a work based societys identity lies in the citizenship and occupations of individuals, (Shachtman, p.101). In addition, the consumer society has evolved into a new culture, which has diverse and often contradicting principles to those of work and citizenship. Consequently, capitalists, emerge to maximum their taxation realization venture into global markets to exploit new markets. This leave behind at last lead to a single global culture based on cons umerism, and individual consumer patterns based on pagan uniqueness and opposite much(prenominal) factors pass on be eliminated. As capitalists devise new ways of maximizing their profits, the consumers in a society based on consumerism look for goods of steep quality and with the lowest cost. Consequently, both the consumers and the capitalists atomic number 18 non driven by genial function and do non try to deal with issues that argon created by capitalism and consumerism. societal responsibility is in the hands of the administration and the society b atomic number 18ly the culture of consumerism and capitalism encourages individualism as individually entity is in pursuit of its own goals without considering how nearly of these goals might be poignant others and the society in genera, (Shachtman, p.106).The nature of the western society made it executable to be targeted for consumer society. A society dependable of egocentricity, deceptive advertising, nihilis m, and values subjectivism to schoolman goals is easier to sway to the path of consumerism. In such a society where economic growth is the alone important thing to any individual and has the capabilities and the ply to displace or degrade moral values as we traditionally knew them, the gauge of self expense is always spoiling power. Those in a position to buy and own property have a to a greater fulfilment rein forced worth in a society upholding consumerism. The contribution of the media send away non be ignored as it continues to create an image which e rattlingone in the western society tries to fit in thus distorting the self worth and self awareness of each person. It is the goal of every capitalist to relieve oneself a large television audience into identification of his personality with specifically designed consumer ideas and advertising fantasies. We no long-acting possess the ability to do our things independent of consumerism justification. Advertising duplicity and consumerism are now potential threats to the individuation process and conscious(p)ness regardless of continued linking of capitalism to the beginning of consciousness. Social cultural meaning diminishes as it is exploited further by media which siphons indescribable content in order to attract much consumers.The ability to control consumption gives most capitalists the power to influence the evolvement of different consumption patterns over time. They employ different but simple mechanisms like the compact of a simpler life. The end result is a consumer revolution which in turn forced a relevant reaction in terms of information, communication and engineering science leading to even more merchandise of goods and services. The goods which result from this high ware forces the capitalist society to convince more tidy sum to consume goods and alters the rudimentary institution through generation of new ideologies for pleasure. A completely new description of pleasure ca n besides result. One of the major driven back of capitalism and consumerism is witnessed at times of economic crisis. The capitalist system has been able to solve the entire crisis but considerably harming the environment especially when we consider the waste created and the resources utilized.A consumer culture is exploitative, both indirectly and indirectly. employment of goods and services involves spending silver, which is not equally ready(prenominal) across a society that is founded on capitalism. Considering that most resources are not infinite, there mustiness be mechanisms that ensure that they rationed. In this context, consumption does not allow full choice for all individuals but only to those who have the purchasing power, (could you present to be poor, p. 75). This agent that vital services under the control of capitalist structures are not accessible to those who cannot dedicate them. Scott, (2005) states that good medical consider and education is not acce ssible to the poor meaning that pack in unwarranted their lives if they do not have the money to have their illnesses fixed. This brings in the question of whether these divisions should only be for the crocked or should be available for all. In this regard, consumerism culture may work more towards protecting the possessions of the smashed through a consumerism culture, which is divisive in nature.The illusion that consumerism puts forward is that of choice for all, which is an effective way of ensuring that the deprived do not harbor sentiments that the capitalist system is short charging them. Consumerism therefore divides the haves from the have-nots and further stratifies the society. In the seek passing to essentials CEOs vs. Slaves, the author notes the wide margins in terms that exist between the capitalist and consumers, noting that CEOs earn as much as 260% more that the third highest executive, (p. 70). The essay further notes that billionaires, created by capitali sm exploit the labor market by subjecting employees to slave-like working conditions with a peanut salary. As much as consumer goods are available across the society, only those who have the money to purchase give benefit. This, according to Karl Marx, is the root of most societal problems, which arise from controlled consumption beca consumption of poverty.In a consumerism culture, individuals are motivated by the ability to acquire what they desire. This is not an obstacle for those who can afford it, but for the poor, it is continuous challenge to guard up with consumerism. Although this culture may make products, especially technology readily available in the market, those whose purchasing power is limited get out not have access. Technology like PCs, hi-tech communication devices such as phones, LCD TVs and so forth remain unobtainable to the poor. The resulting economic discrimination serves only to paint a dreary future for the affected economies. As the rich gain more c ontrol and the poor are unexpended with fewer alternatives, the policy-making hierarchy in turn adheres to these policies which violate the normally held ideas regarding peaceful coexistence and human rights resulting to a self propagating system of exploitation. The corporate capitalist view the consumer only as a target and only get on on factors which control interests thus altering culture putting this up for sale is always made easier by the media advertising. Although there exists some constitutional guarantees, the corporate capitalist anyway subjects the public to economic and political systems which only exploit the rights of the many to the benefits of the few. The major contributors are always the movers of government policies which results to political agenda based on their cravings.This inability to access what they desire will lead individuals, especially those from poor backgrounds to engage in all modality of crimes in order to afford what they want. Juvenile bu rglary, drug peddling and harlotry are some crimes that are associated with people from poor backgrounds. Individuals driven by what they want will engage in activities, which violate the rights of others just to have enough power to purchase commodities. Just like the elite and the wealthy who own the manufacturing and distributing franchises and are solely driven by maximizing their profits, the consumers are driven by the ability to purchase as much as they can. This individuality, by the capitalists and the consumers alike, often infringe on the rights of others and over exploit available resources to achieve individual ends.Capitalist engage in unethical practices in order to maximum their revenue. In a society that is progressively being interpreted up by the consumerism culture, the capitalists are confront with stiff tilt as many more industries and companies come up to get their conduct of the profits. This creates an atmosphere of intense competitiveness among the cap italists who want to attract and retain a bigger market share. In order to this, they need to advertise their goods so that they are widely recognized by the consumers. Consequently, most of these advertisements are shoddy to the consumer who in the end is unable to make an informed decision about(predicate) the quality of the goods or services. A good subject is the Macdonalds fast fodder kitchen range, which previously advertised meals as healthy for children. This statement had to be rewrite when it was established that the meals so called healthy were responsible for childhood obesity, not to make other lifestyle diseases that are rooted in the consumption of oily food. Therefore, the capitalists not only exploits the consumer by providing sub-standard goods, but may also provide false information, which may ultimately pose a serious risk of infection to the health, life and overall well-being of the consumer.Every individual in the society has the capability of selling his or her labor products. Capitalist mode of production does not support this system. All what they need is a disjointed tie between producers and the means they make use of for production. This simply means that, the peasant farmers to loose their farms, artisans and constructors to loose their tools among other means to deny these people access. With deprived access, these people have no choice but to seek those who have the means of production to use their land and tools and in return gain some wages. The means of production is therefore the ultimate control as it gives you the opportunity to control the goods produced which are in turn bought by back by the same people who labor to produce them. The gap between the two groups is widened as the laborers are turned once again into consumers and the money taken back by those who own the means of production. They just lend you the money for sometime but they own it.Consumerism has also led to environmental humiliation in so ma ny ways. In order to meet the demands of consumers in such a society, and in a world where resources are increasingly becoming depleted, manufactures will look for alternative sources of raw materials in other countries or localities. After they have exhausted the resources, they will move on to the next stop, without concern of how their activities are affecting the environment. In Hardings, (2001), before you fill out eating breakfast this morning, he cites the production of rubber, which has led to extensive disforestation in Thailand, which has consequently resulted to increased urbanization. It is no wonder, that the issue of global calefacient has become a worrying reality to many governments around the world. world(prenominal) warming has led to climatic changes, whose cause are felt more by people in the developing countries. This is because most of them rely on agriculture and the major source of GDP and unpredictable weather cycles, droughts as well as floods means th at agriculture can no longer be relied on for national revenue. Developing countries are constantly faced with food shortages and global warming has worsened the situation.Global warming is also caused by industry emissions, which destroy the Ozone layer in the atmosphere. Global warming is deeply rooted in industrialization, which in itself was fueled by capitalism and later consumerism. The means used to obtain these resources further destroys the environment. Harding, (2001) notes, tuna from Somalia is fished utilise explosives, which destroys the coastal eco system. Bananas obtained from the Dominican Republic are grown using chemic fertilizer, which destroys the soil balance.Consumerism and capitalism are enemies of the people. Behind the fancy advertisements, symbolic values, and the promise of merchandise lays their true value characterized and driven by profit making. It is a mechanism by which big businesses ensure continued buying by the consumers not only aimed at prof it making. Obsession with consumerism coarsens the moral reference to a state where the society no longer up holds tradition, but allows itself to be oppressed by structures of consumerism and credit obligations. Consumerism is nothing but a myth meant top make those who believe in it that they can enliven all their needs only through consuming. Cultural fulfillment and social obligations are sacrificed in the altar of gratification associated with owning property and buying goods. The justness is, this gratification is short lived and adds joy for a short moment to those who cal afford to gratify this need and leads to sadness to those who can not afford to blood line this need. However, this gratification deprives us the overall fulfillment of other important cultural mythologies. When culture is commercialized, there is always a lot to loose in terms of digd reality. Our perception looses its depth, richness and periphery.For these, and other negative reasons that are associ ated with capitalism and the consumerism culture, it is imperative for the society to take action sooner than later in order to avoid inflicting permanent damage to the society fabric and the environment, which sustains it. Capitalism has created a materialistic society based on individual gratification without much thought of the impact on other people, cultures and environment. much(prenominal) individual gratification has facilitated societal evils such as human trafficking drug trafficking, prostitution and forms of crimes.To begin with, changing the consumerism culture in western society is not going to be an easy task, and will definitely not happen overtime. This culture is so ingrained in western societies to the extent that it is now second nature. A more difficult task will be changing the mentality of capitalism from profit realization to moral and social responsibility.Presently, there are groups and movements that are emerging which set an example in the way to change the consumerism culture in American people. The social groups and movements engage in activities such as garbage bin hunting. These people scour dustbins in supermarkets and hotels to get food that has been thrown away but is not spoilt. The foods included canned foods and encase vegetables, which are thrown out simply because they have minor blemishes. This may seem like an extreme method but it is sending the message to society. That wastage leads to depletion of resources, in addition to denying them to other people who need them.Achieving change is not a task that can be accomplished by one element in this chain of capitalism and consumerism. To begin with, the government should establish policies and guidelines that will ensure that resources are not exploited or depleted. Secondly, the government should also tighten regulations that will protect the environment from abuse by unscrupulous capitalists. Current measures are not effective, evidenced in the current BP oils spill in the Mexican Gulf, which is threatening marine life over a large area. With these guidelines by and punitive measures incase they are violated the society will be ready to begin the journey towards self-transformation without the use of extreme means that characterize revolutions.However, this kind of change can only begin when the society becomes scrupulous about the damage of their current habits and their long-term effects. People may perceive consumerism as a convenient lifestyle where they are able to buy anything to make life easier. However, people should realize that this convenience has adverse effects on the freedoms of others and the environment. Industries should also become more conscientious, and ensure that they do not destroy the very environment that makes their businesses possible in a call off to make quick profits. The industry should acknowledge their moral and social responsibility and ensure that their practices are environmental friendly, do not exploit r esources or the market. This can be achieved through civic education of the industry circumspection on safe practices as well as the consumers on how to downplay waste and consider how the products they choose to buy are affecting others. This manifestation is demonstrated by the current campaign being made for the use kilobyte products.In the background of global warming that is threatening the very existence of planet earth, numerous campaigns have been launched that admonish individuals to become environmentally conscious. This movement is referred to as the dark- young revolution where society is going green and demanding only those products that are manufactured in ways that do not harm the environment. The green movement is making progress, as manufactures and merchandisers are compelled to use products and processes that do not destroy the already fragile environment. Even for those who are reluctant to make changes, they have no alternative, as the environmental conscio us consumer will simply shun purchasing such products. The effectiveness of the green revolution has been great, and consumers should subsequently step up the movement by demanding more products to go green or else loose their market. Products that have gone green include foodstuff, clothing, technology, which includes phones and computers, furniture, toys and even cars. Everyone in the society can contribute to the green revolution by encouraging recycling, avoiding wasteful buying especially packaged food and the use of recyclable goods.

Water and power consumption: Analysis of sewage treatment plant

Water and power bulge come ingo Analysis of sewer fragilityment demonstrate life1. INTRODUCTIONWaters unique Characteristics and its essential situation for every(prenominal) life have inspired myths and influenced cultures, religions, art, and literature by means of every times.The process involved for the erythrocyte Biological Treatment method is named as FIXED FILM ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR BIOWHEELS. In this process by delegacy of rotation of the bio wheels micro beingnesss be expected to growth in the red blood cell and the overflow from the Lamella clarifier all in waive for be the commencement exercise stage of the do by peeing. The micro organisms will develop on the surface of the disk and the small town of the organisms will take pose beca mapping of the inlet load into the system. The thick learn like formation in the surface of the disk is the indication of the growth. In cloaca weewee supply the main constituents of Pollutants being pr imitive in re readyation these tush be decocted easily in the RBC.sewer is created by institutions, residences, and hospitals and technical-grade and industrial establishments. Raw influent of cloaca shoot a line pee implicates polarityhold chase away smooth-spoken from the toilets, sinks, showers, kitchens, baths, and so forth that is disposed of sewage suck urine.1.1 occupy The aim of the project is to Analysis of pissing system aspiration and power consumption of sewage manipulation whole kit and boodle. 1.2 Objective* To Analysis the weewee and power consumption of the sewage sermon plant * To substitute the parameters of irrigate source, power source.* To try the Rotating Biological contactor Biowheels.Lamella clarifier* Analyzing 2D design of the Sewage Treatment Plant.* To analyze the results and protrude appropriate solution.2. BACKGROUND RESEARCH Waste water calm from upcountry(prenominal) and industrial commwholeies must be returned to receiving waters or to the land. Although the collecting of tempest water and drainage dates from ancient times the collection of languish water nooky be traced only to the early 1800s. The systematic word of effluent followed in the late 1800s and early 1900s. at that place be many methods and processes to treat effluent. The nigh crude approach uses radical interference ( covering and clarification) to remove solids aerobic, hang growth, spark sludge substitute preaching to reduce complete pollutants and centiliter disinfection to reduce pathogens. Secondary manipulation is the largest energy consumer (30 to 60% of total plant usage), followed by pumping and sludge processing. Although hang up growth, activated sludge is the most common effluent treatment process, it is not the most energy efficient. Aerated lagoons, trickling filters and rotating biologic contactors argon significantly more efficient. They are not as astray apply because aerated lagoons require a large land area, and trickling filters and rotating biological contactors are better suited for smaller capacity applications. Many effluent treatment plants are shifting from chlorine- base disinfection to UV disinfection to eliminate the risk of shop and handling of toxic chemical substances. Although UV disinfection is energy intensive, it adds no chemical correspondence to the effluent. This feature is particularly important for discharge to sensitive aquatic environments or for effluent reuse. In popular, low pressure UV systems are considerably more efficient than medium pressure systems. Energy might opportwholeies in wastewater treatment include the use of fine bubble diffusers, fade away oxygen control of aeration, superior efficiency blowers, variable frequency drives on pumps and blowers, premium efficiency motors, and the reduction of the head against which pumps and blowers operate. Sewage is generally a mixture of domestic of waste water from bath, sinks an d washing machines and toilets, waste water from all industry and rainwater run get through from roads and separate surfaced areas. any twenty-four hour period in the UK ab emerge 347,000 Kilometers of sewers collect over 11 billion liters of waste water. This is treated ab tabu 9000 sewage treatment works in the beginning the treated effluent is discharged to inland waters, estuaries and the sea. Without suitable treatment, the waste water we produce every mean solar day would damage the water environmental and creates to make the public health problems. Untreated sewage encloses organic study carbohyd judge, fats and proteins, bacteria and chemicals. Bacteria naturally portray in environmental waters do break these substances down, but in doing so they use the oxygen dissolve in this water. If at that place were large or round-the-clock untreated discharges of urban waste water the result could be too little oxygen for fish and other aquatic life to survive. So the pu rpose of waste water treatment is to remove organic substances to protect the environment from these effects. Sewage works therefore reproduce what would be sinkring in the environmental. Settling out much of the solid event is called Primary Treatment, and victimisation Bacteria that digest and break down the organic substances is called Secondary Treatment. Sometimes further treatment Tertiary is required to protect sensitive water environments Tertiary treatment can involve disinfecting the treated effluent to protect the bathing and mollusk waters. It can in like mood involve the removal of phosphorous or nitrates nutrients present in sewage. To protect the waters that is threatened by eutrophication. (ref sewage treatment in the UK defray department for environment food Rural affairs,PB 6655 abut 2002.).3. LITERATURE REVIEWMunicipal water use is generally carve up into quad categories,1. Domestic water unremarkably employ for sanitary and general purposes2. Industr ial water use for nondomestic purposes,3. The Public service water usually utilise for fir fighting, and system maintenance and as well municipal embellish irrigation.4. Unaccounted for system losses and leakage The following data are normal municipal water use in the United States Report. ( (George Tchobanoglous and Franklin L. Burton, 1991) control board 1 Municipalities water use3.1 Domestic water use.Domestic water use encompasses the water supplied to residential areas ,and commercial districts, institutional facilities, and unskilled facilities as a measuring rodd by individual water meters .The uses to which this water is put include drinking, washing, bathing, culinary, and waste removal, and yard irrigate these kind of water collected from household sewage. Using the reasonable flow values reported in above table of the water use in a municipal water supply system is for domestic purposes.3.2 Residential areasThe water normally used by residential households consis ts of water for interior use such(prenominal)(prenominal) as showers and toilets and water for exterior use such as lawn watering and car washing, the household wastewater mostly used in sewage treatment plant. Typical data for interior water use are presented in below table.How much amount of water used in residential areas water use for exterior applications varies widely accounting upon the geographic location, temper and time of division and mainly consists of landscape irrigation.The Residential areas 100% of water normally used by typical distribution of residential interior water use the following table overstepn detailsTable 2 Typical distribution interior water use (George Tchobanoglous and Franklin L. Burton, 1991)3.3 commercial message facilitiesThe water used by commercial facilities for sanitary purposes will vary widely depending on the eccentric soulfulness of activity meat example of finish offices and compared to a restaurant. Typical water use values for v arious types of commercial facilities are reported in following table also for large commercial water development facilities such as laundries and car washes, careful estimates of veridical water use should be made.Table 3 Typical rates of water use for commercial facilities(George Tchobanoglous and Franklin L. Burton, 1991)3.4 Institutional facilitiesWater used by facilities such as hospitals, schools and rest home is usually establish on some measure of the size of the facility and the type of housing exploit leaved example of per student or per bed, and water normally use for schools will vary significantly depending on whether the students are housed on campus or are day students. The representative water use values for institutional facilities are reported following table.Table 4 Typical water-use values for institutional facilities(George Tchobanoglous and Franklin L. Burton, 1991)3.5 Recreational FacilitiesThe recreational facilities mostly water used in such as swimming pools, bowling alleys, and camps, resorts, then country clubs perform a wide range of functions involving water use. The following table typical water use values are reported.Table Typical water-use values for recreational facilities(George Tchobanoglous and Franklin L. Burton, 1991)4. SEWAGE TREATMENT seed4.1PRINCIPLESewage treatment plant there are two main types of biological reply, depending upon the front or absence of free oxygen, the aerobic reception takes place only in the presence of free oxygen and produces stable, relatively inert end products. Anaerobic reaction are more complex, being two stage, proceeding relatively slow and leading to end products which are unstable and which still suffer goodly amounts of energy. In any biological reaction the energy in the organic matter, used as food by the microorganisms, is split three slipway some is used in creating new microorganisms, some is incorporated in the end products of the reaction, the pro delegates of ener gy in the three areas depend upon the nature of the reaction, the type of organic matter, the type of microorganisms,and environmental conditions. The organic matter in wastewater thus provides the well as providing the energy for the oxidation reactions which releases the end products of biological treatment. (THY Tebbutt,1990). Domestic sewage satisfies all these requirements but some industrial wastewaters whitethorn be lacking in nutrients or other factors, which could result in inhibition of biological activity, Toxic substances present in the wastewater can also mean that biological treatment of an organic wastewater is ineffective, although it is sometimes possible for microorganisms to become acclimated to substances which initially appear to be toxic. The aim of effected biological treatment processes is to achieve almost complete removal of the organic matter in the feed. The activated sludge system is a common form of discharge growth reactor, and both systems require a remittal facility to remove the excess biological solids produced in the process. In the content of fixed film systems the solids are essentially dead cells, but with the dispersed growth activated sludge systems the bulk of the cells are nutriment and are returned to the reactor for re use, only the excess solids being removed. (THY Tebbutt,1990).Characterstics of waste water sewage treatment plant Bio chemical oxygen demand summarize dissolved solids Chemical oxygen demand Total suspend solids PH Bio chemical oxygen demandIt is a measure of the amount of oxygen that bacteria will consume while decomposing organic matter nether aerobic conditions. Total dissolved solidsIt comprises inorganic salts and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water. The principle constituents are usually the captions , atomic number 20, magnesium, sodium, and kB and the anions carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate and particularly in groundwater nitrate. Chemical oxygen dema ndIt is a measure of the total quantity of oxygen required to oxidize all organic material into carbon dioxide and water.* Total hang solidsIt is a measure of the suspended solids in waste water, effluent, or water bo busts even upd by tests for Total suspended non-filterable solids. PHIt is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions increase with increasing alkalinity and decreasing with increasing acidity. The PH scale commonly in use ranges from 0 to 14. ( www.answers.com )Classification of Waste Water Treatment MethodsThe wastewater treatment is contaminants are removed by physical, chemical and also biological methods. Sewage Treatment Plant individual methods usually are classified ad as a physical unit trading exercises, chemical unit operations and also Biological unit operations and processes. Although these operations and processes occur in a variety of combinings in Treatment Systems. (George Tchobanoglous, FranKl in L.Burton, 1991,1979,1972)4.2 Physical operations unitThe Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces to predominate are know as physical operation unit. Because most of these methods involved directly from the first observations of a nature, and they were the first to be used for wastewater .treatment. These are the Screening, Mixing, Flocculation, Flotation,down payment,Filtration,and spatter transfer are typical unit operations. (George Tchobanoglous, FranKlin L.Burton, 1991,1979,1972).ScreeningThe first off all unit operation entered in wastewater treatment plants is showing .a screen is a device with openings ,generally of uniform a size, that is using to harbour the coarse solids found in wastewater.DescriptionThe screening elements may consists of latitude bars, conducting wires or ,grating, rods, mesh, or perforated plate ,a screen composed of couple bars or rods is called a bar rack sometimes called a bar screen).The term screen is used for scree ning devices consisting of perforated plates wedges wire elements and wire cloth. The materials removed by these devices are known as screenings. classify RacksIn Wastewater treatment, bar racks are used to protect the Pumps pipelines valves and other appurtenances from the damaged or clogging by a rags and large objects.ScreensSewage treatment plant is widely used to excludescreening,early screens were of the inclined disk or drum type, whose screening media consisted of bronze or copper plates with milled slots ,and were installed in place of sedimentation cooler cars for indigenous treatment .since the early 1970s,there has been resurgence of delight in the field of wastewater treatment in the use of screens of all types ,the application range from elementary treatment to the removal of the residual suspended solids from biological treatment processes. (George Tchobanoglous, FranKlin L.Burton, 1991,1979,1972)MixingMixing is an important unit operation in many phases of waste water treatment including (1)the mixing of one substances alone with another, (2)the mixing of liquid suspensions,(3)the blending of miscible liquids,(4)flocculation and (5) change transfer .chemicals are also mixed with sludge to improve tidal watering characteristics. In anaerobiotic digestion, mixing is used accelerate the biological conversion process and to heat the contents of the digester uniformly .Description ApparatusMost mixing operations in wastewater can be classified as continuous rapid or continuous. Continuous -rapid mixing is used most a good deal where one substance is to be mixed with another. Continuous mixing is used where the contents of reactor or holding tank or john must be kept in suspension.Energy dissipation mixingThe power input per unit volume of liquid can be used as a rough measure of mixing effectiveness, based on the reasoning that more input power creates greater turbulance,and greater turbulence leads to better mixing.SedimentationIt is one of the most widely used in waste water treatment, sedimentation is the separation from the water, by gravitative settling, of suspended solids that are heavier than water, it is one of the most widely used unit operations in wastewater treatment .A Sedimentation basinful may also be referred to as a sedimentation tank, settling basin ,or settling tank,Sedimentation is used for grit removal, particularly floating matter removal in the aboriginal settling basin, biological float removal in the activated sludge and settling basin and chemical dress down removal. Whenever the chemical coagulation processes is used.4.3 Chemical unit processesSewage treatment plant is widely used to chemical unit processes ,This Treatment Methods in which the removal or conversion of the contaminants is brought about by the chemicals or by other chemical reactions are known as a chemical processes unit. There are three different types chemical processes used in the wastewater treatment.Precipitation,a nd disinfection and adsorption, which the process mostly used in the wastewater treatment. In the chemical audacity ,treatment is also accomplished by producing a chemical boil down that will settle. In most cases the settled precipitate will contain the both constituents that may have reacted with the adding to chemicals and the substance that were swept of wastewater as the predicated settled in the water. (George Tchobanoglous, FranKlin L.Burton, 1991,1979,1972)4.4 Chemical coagulationThe settlement of fine colloidal and suspended solids can be assisted by the use of flocculation as but with dilute suspensions, such as lowland river waters, the opportunities for collisions and agglomeration are limited. In such circumstances flocculation does not significantly improve the settling characteristics of the suspension. the supplement of a chemical coagulant, which precipitates flocculent solids in the water, followed by flocculation and sedimentation, can provide a high degree of clarification. the processes of chemical coagulation is thus carried out in a sequence of operations, the first of which involves rapid to permit enmeshment of the colloidal solids in the rapidly precipitating flock. (THY Tebbutt, 1990)Following the initial stage hastiness stage, the suspension is passed to flocculation and sedimentation units, which may be separate or combined. the most popular coagulant for potable water treatment is aluminum sulphate, often referred to as alum. When it is added to water in small doses of around 20-50mg/l,a reaction takes place with the natural alkalinity present, and insoluble aluminum hydroxide is formed. this responds well to controlled flocculation. The chemical reactions which occur are complex but may be simplified as Al2(SO4)3 +3Ca(HCO3)2 = 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSo4 +6CO2When using the commercial alum which has 16-18 molecules of water of crystallization, and expressing alkalinity in terms of calcium carbonate, each mg/l of alum reacts with 0.5mg/ l of alkalinity. By using a range of coagulant does and PH values ,it is possible to determine the optimum conditions to achieve the required water quality. (THY Tebbutt, 1990)Chemical precipitationIn essence ,chemical precipitation depends upon the use of an added reagent which combines with the impurity to be removed to give an insoluble product which can then be removed by sedimentation, preceded by flocculation if necessary.A(impurity) + B(reagent) = C (precipitate) + D(by product)It is clearly essential that any byproduct of the reaction does not itself have undesirable properties in relation to the eventual use of the water or wastewater. It is also important to remember that chemical precipitation processes produce sludges containing the impurities and that the cost of handling and disposing of these sludges in a safe manner can be significant. (THY Tebbutt, 1990)DisinfectionDisinfection refers to the selective destroy of disease causing organism .all the organisms are not de stroyed of during the process this differentiates disinfection from sterilization, which is the destruction of all organisms. In the field of waste water treatment, there are three categories of military man enteric organisms of the greatest consequence in producing disease are viruses, bacteria, and amoebous cysts.Disinfection is widely used to wastewater sewage treatment plant there are well -established links between the contamination of drinking water with facial matter and the incidence of such water related diseases as cholera, typhoid and many gastrointestinal infections. Thus the removal of the pathogenic microorganisms from water supplies is a very valuable measure for the improvement of public health. Disinfection means the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms and does not necessarily mean that the water is sterile, since a small number of harm little microorganisms are usually present in tap water and poses no hazard.For most disinfection the rate of kill is stipul ation by dN/dt = -KNwhere k = rate constant N = number of living microorganismsThe rate constant varies with the particular disinfectant, its concentration, the organism being killed,PH,Temperature,and other environmental factors. (THY Tebbutt, 1990)5. Biological unit processesSewage Treatment plant is widely used to Biological unit processes ,this is processes is remove the microorganism of the water, In this Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is bring about by biological activity are known as a biological unit processes. Biological treatment is used primary to remove the biodegradable organic substances matter (means colloidal or dissolved )in wastewater.Basically,these substances matter are converted into the gases that can be escaped to the atmosphere and into the biological cell tissue unit that can be removed by settling. At the same time this treatment is also used to remove the nutrients (means nitrogen and phosphorous) in wastewater. (George Tchobanoglou s, FranKlin L.Burton, 1991,1979,1972)5.1 Components of wastewater FlowsThe components of the wastewater flows that make up the wastewater flow from a community depend on the type of collection system used and may include the followingThere are four types of wastewater flows available in the wastewater treatment.1. Domestic (is also called sanitary) wastewater. This is kind of wastewater discharged from residences and from commercial,instutional , and house hold sewage toilet waste water, bath, sinks ,and canteen wastewater and uniform facilities.2. Industrial wastewater .this kind of wastewater in which industrial wastes predominate.3. percolation/inflow .water that enters the sewer system through the indirect and direct means. The infiltration is extraneous water enters that the sewer system through the leaking joints.4. Storm water. overspill resulting from rainfall and snowmelt. This kind of components of wastewater flows essentially used in the sewage treatment plant.5.2 Was te water treatment There are four different types of wastewater processing in available in sewage treatment plant. Primary treatment referred to physical unit operations. Secondary treatment referred to chemical and Biological unit process, and also Advanced or ordinal referred to combinations of all four other processing. preceding wastewater treatmentPreliminary wastewater treatment is delimit as the removal of wastewater constituents that may causes to maintenance of the operational problems with the treatment of the operations. Examples of preliminary operations are screening and commutation for the removal of debris (J.Staudenmann, A. Schonborn, C. Etnier, 1996).primary wastewater treatmentIn primary wastewater treatment, a portion of the suspended solids and organic material is removing from the waste water. This removal is usually accomplished with physical operations such as screening and sedimentation. The effluent from primary treatment will ordinarily contain considera ble organic matter and will have relatively high contour.treatment plants using only primary treatment will be phased out in the future as implementation of the EPA inessential treatment requirements is completed. noble-minded instances (for those communities having a secondary treatment waiver)will primary treatment be used as the sole method of treatment .the principal function of primary treatment will continue to be as a forerunner to secondary treatment .* Conventional secondary wastewater treatmentThe secondary treatment is directed principally toward the removal of bio degradable organics and suspended. Disinfection is included frequently in the definition of conventional secondary treatment is defined as the combination of processes customarily used for the removal of these constituents and includes biological treatment by activated sludge fixed film reactors, or lagoon systems and sedimentation. Advanced wastewater treatment/wastewater reclamationAdvanced wastewater tre atment is defined as the level of treatment required beyond conventional secondary treatment to removing constituents of concern including toxic, nutrients, compounds, and larger amounts of organic material and suspended solids .In appendage to the nutrient removal processes, unit operations or processes frequently use in advanced wastewater treatment are chemical coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation followed by filtration and multi grade filter and also activated carbon filter. (George Tchobanoglous, FranKlin L.Burton, 1991,1979,1972).6. s.t.p. BASED ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS6.2 PrincipleA Rotating biological contactor (RBC) is constructed of bundles of plastic packing material attached radically to a make out, forming a cylinder of media .the shaft is displace contour bottomed tank so that the media are submerged around 40 percent. the contactor surfaces are spaced so that during submergence in wastewater can enter the voids in the packing .when rotated out of t he tank ,the liquid trickles out of the voids in the packing. when rotated out of the tank the liquid trickles out of the voids between surfaces and is replaced by air. A fixed film biological growth, similar to that on a trickling filter packing, adheres to the media surfaces. Alternating exposure to organics in the wastewater and oxygen in the air during rotation distributor. Excess the biomass sloughs from the media and is carried out in the processes effluent for gravity separation.A treatment system consists of primary sedimentation preceding and final sedimentation following the rotating biological contactors. Since the recirculation through RBC units is not normally practiced, only sufficient underflow from the final clarifier is returned to allow removal of excess of the biological solids in primary sedimentation and waste sludge similar to the character to the from trickling filter plant ,in withdrawn from the primary clarifiers disposal of waste. In large type of plants, a common shaft is placed over a contoured tank with the wastewater flow pair to the shaft. A series of four stages are normally installed in the treatment of domestic wastewater for BOD reduction. additional stages may be added to invest nitrification .Each stage acts as a completely mixed chamber and the impulsion of the wastewater through the series of tanks simulates plug flow. Biological solids washed off of the media are transported hydraulically under the baffles to be carried out with the effluent.RBC units are saved by installation either in a building with adequate to(predicate) ventilation or under separate plastic covers lined with insulation.The efficiency of BOD removal of in the processing domestic wastewater is based on empirical data from operating RBC plants. the Mathematical equations also have been developed ,but their prediction of the performance is not consistently reliable. the typically recommendations for secondary treatment of domestic wastewater to prod uce an effluent of less than 30 mg/l of BOD and also 30mg/l of suspended solids. (Mark J.Hammer Mark J.Hammer,Jr, 1996)TECHNICAL DETAILS OF RBC DESCRIPTION MOC / MAK1. Polymer sheet die 2m x 2 thk special polymer from Germany2. RBC Trough poly propylene /FRP3. RBC Support MS Resin Coated4. Geared Motor (0.75HP) FLENDER5. gossip Coupling Love Joy6. Drive Support Mild leaf blade7. Bush Nylon8. Shaft SS304TANK SCHEDULE OF RBC The following tanks used in sewage treatment plant based Rotating Biological contactor Processes.1. Bar screen2. Collection Tank3. PIT 1,2,34. Flow divider5. slime drying bed6. Semi Treated water tank7. Multi grade gritrock filter8. Activated carbon filter9. Treated water tankEQUIPMENT SCHEDULE The following equipments used in sewage treatment plant based Rotating Biological contactor processes.DESCRIPTION MODEL/HP QTYRBC 0.75 hp 1 submergible warship Pump 1 Hp 2Submersible Pump (Lamella) 1 Hp 1Filter feed submersible pump 3 Hp 27. ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR PROCESS(60 KILO l PER DAY) 2D8. WATER CONSUMPTION ANALYSIS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTRaw sewage characteristicsDomestic waste waterThe volume of a wastewater from a community varies from 50 to 250 gal capital per day depending on the sewer system uses. A common values for domestic wastewater flow is 120 gpcd means 450 liter person per day use, which assumes that the residential waste water have modern water using appliances, such as automatic washing machines. the organic substances matter contributed per person per day in domestic wastewater is approximately 0.24 lb to 110gram of suspended solids and 0.20lb and 90 gram of BOD in communities where a substantial portion of the household kitchen wastes is designed is discharged to the sewer system through food waste grinders. In selection of data for design, the quantity of and organic strength of wastewater should be based on actual measurements taken through the year to account for variations resulting from seasonal clima tic changes and other factors. the average values during the notice calendar month may be used for design ,excluding un usual infiltration and inflow, the average daily sanitary wastewater flow during the maximum month of the year is commonly 20 to 30 percent greater than the average yearbook daily flow, excluding seasonal industrial wastes, the average daily BOD load from sanitary wastewater during the maximum month is greater than the annual ave

History Essays Sparta Foreign Policy

History Essays S intermita Foreign insuranceSparta Foreign PolicyThe beginning of Sparta was a city-state which began with the Dorian migration giving rise to the mighty polis. During this season there were endless force actions and invasions and Sparta fortified its locality through military might hardly also through the development of its agriculture, trade and crafts which transform it into a self-sufficient and quite well-provided nation. Sparta became i of the strongest Grecian city-states during the Hellenic term because of its order and organization.During the first few years the distant constitution of Sparta had 2 goals which were to succeed capital of Greece as the leader of an Aegean-based naval empire, and to strengthen Spartas prevent on the hegemony ( leadershiphip) of Greece (Buckley, Aspects of Greek History 750-323 BC, pg. 424).Get patron with your essay from our unspoiled essay writers Sparta, like most cities during that time seemed to suck in an aggr essive insurance toward there neighbors. Spartan remote policies were biased some of the people did non like the way the states had been set up so they usually back up by a Spartan garrison. Sparta had an essentially a outside(prenominal) policy that was cautious which kept Sparta out of the military involvements near the Aegean. With the expansion of Persia you maxim a number of Greek colonies being captured and turned into dependent states go away to the Persian Empire. Many cities did try revolting against Persia. During this time they requested help from Sparta just they refused to help these cities which many mat up was very wrong but this seemed to reflect how Sparta was during that time frame along with the fact that Sparta had no resources or equipment to help support a war that was being fought on the former(a) side of the Aegean.Part of the policy of Sparta was once they taken project of one of their neighbors and had them under there influence they would non pu rsue them any further. They felt that they did not need to expand any further into that country. Also part of the policy of Sparta was not to unify Greece. They felt they did not need to have one rule but they had a policy in bit to that it would prevent other states from trying to take total control of Sparta. Do we believe this policy to be victorious? I believe it was successful for many years but eventually failed when Sparta lost control to the Macedonians. ultimately we would see Sparta depart from they cautious polices to that they could preserve their land. In the second half(prenominal) of the 6th century, Sparta won a reputation as the bulwark of democracy against tyranny by repeatedly coming to the assistance of democratic elements in other cities and helping them to depose their tyrants. Plutarch claims, for example, that Sparta was instrumental in deposing the tyrants in Corinth, Naxon, Athens (Hippias) and Sikyon (Sparta Reconsidered Diplomacy). Many people today h ave a line of work with this but knowing how the people of Sparta believed that there might be some accuracy to this. Why was this statement even questioned by people? They believed that the Spartan immaterial policy of intervention in the internal affairs of other cities fag be seen as preventive self-defense. Another explanation, of course, is that the tyrants tended to be populist leaders who catered to the mob. As such, they were viewed as more dangerous to the conservative Spartans than democracies dominated by aristocratic elites. (Sparta Reconsidered Diplomacy).Many historians believe that the Spartan Kings were able to influence the extraneous policy by trying to influence the officials. Since the kings were not able to influence the foreign policy of Sparta they felt that if they were able to influence those in control they would be able to get what they wanted. On a formal level, foreign policy seems to have been in the hands of the ephors (Mitchell, Greeks Bearing Gi fts, pg. 64). Part of the problem was the many did not think that the ephors had as much power as the kings believed they did. We do have to be careful when we consider the effect that the foreign policy of Sparta had on foreign policy. It did seem that the important policy of Sparta was the main objectives of Spartan policy form 600 to 400 B.C. were to prvent any state in Greece from becoming dangerous and to bar any outsider from entering the Aegean serviceman (Starr, The Ancient Greeks, pg 115)From my readings I found that during the 6th and 5th centuries it was believed that utmost but not least, the conservatism of Spartas 6th and 5th century foreign policy is reflected in the fact that Sparta was extremely reluctant to move against Athensdespite uphill pressure for support from the city-states chafing under Athens increasingly oppressive and positive hegemony.(Sparta Reconsidered Diplomacy)Did Spartan Foreign Policy have an impact on the world today? Yes I do think that w e can see vernacular factors between ancient Greece and the contemporary world. This impact has had an impact on many nations spanning over twenty-four centuries. Has it always had a positive impact, probably not but we do see that these policies had a great impact on the course of human eventsReferencesBuckley, Terry. Aspects Of Greek History 750-323 BC A Source-Based Approach. cutting York Routledge, 1996. 424 online books.google. New York Routledge, 1996., 424. operational from http//www.questia.com/library/book/aspects-of-greek-history-750-323-bc-a-source-based-approach-by-terry-buckley.jsp Accessed dire 30, 2008Mitchell, Lynette G.. Greeks Bearing Gifts The usual Use of Private Relationships in the Greek World, 435-323 BC. New York Cambridge University Press, 2002. 64 Available from http//books.google.com/books?hl=enid=FbVPFJQtoZgCdq=Mitchell,+Lynette+G..+Greeks+Bearing+Gifts+The+Public+Use+of+Private+Relationships+in+the+Greek+World,+435-323+BC.printsec=frontcoversource=w ebots=oL_hF8Vwo7sig=B8C9j7rGsRYYTaA_CK96Jmze6oMsa=Xoi=book_resultresnum=1ct=result Accessed August 30, 2008Sparta Reconsidered Spartan Diplomacy. Elysium Gates Web Hosting. http//elysiumgates.com/helena/Diplomacy.html (accessed August 30, 2008).Starr, Chester. The Ancient Greeks. Library of Congress Oxford University Press, 1971.

Analyze Role Of Mentor Developing And Delivering Teaching Nursing Essay

Analyze Role Of Mentor Developing And Delivering Teaching breast feeding EssayThe role of the diddle in nursing is a every life-or-death(p) genius and should non be downstairstaken lightly, it is a privilege with much responsibility, as the teach is account sufficient for their own and their teachees performance. It is a privilege as a professional person decl atomic number 18 wise man to be suit fitting to help a student realize their potential and rewarding to see them putting the opening they eat up exami pauperism into habituate and helping them get the unaired to extinct of their placement. The role of the teach kindle non be over-emphasized eruditeness experience in the clinical causeting see to its that the maintains and midwives of the future are fit to answer (RCN, 2007) and in this trend the role is central to patient safety. Most registered nurses in the NHS will be expected to assume the role of wise man and with 50% of pre-registration nursin g programs engraft in course session (RCN, 2007), with resources becoming less and less and the NHS becoming busier and busier, charge scholarship and mentoring play an increasingly important role. Mentorees bring to be able to rely on the consistency, competency and superior familiarity and professionalism of the mentor to travel by their schooling, assess their competence and thus strongly act as door carriage keepers to the profession (Duffy, 2004) and as such is an extremely important role. The following endeavor will draw upon types of leanership to enhance the skills of the mentor and improve the kinship between the mentor and mentoree.The first question that requisites screaming, is what is a mentor?. There exists many a(prenominal) definitions, and the term mentoring has been use interchangeably with, preceptor, coach, supervisor and teacher (Morton-Cooper Palmer, 2000). Price (2004) defined it as an experienced professional friend, charged with the teac hing, focussing and assessment of a learner in practice. The NMC considered it as, a mandatory emergency for pre-registration nursing and midwifery students (NMC, 2006a). Some have defined mentoring as essentially an evidence- base intervention that inspires potency and innovation, and get aheads continuous professional development, (Jakubic, 2004). In addition mentoring good deal be both in chunk and formal informal mentoring is often used as an adjunct to the more formal process of supervision and is based on a agreed plan of action to help the mentor achieve realistic goals or address specific problem areas. Whereas formal mentoring involves a organized and sequence managed process with clearly set objectives to be realised in a sentencely manner (Tourigny Pilich, 2005). The role of the mentor primarily is to enable the student to make the guess and its application in in the clinical context the mentoree moldiness learn to put theory and knowledge and be able to apply what they have learned to clinical practice. This process involves among others, assessing, evaluating and providing inferential feedback. It in addition involves assisting the mentoree in developing the ability to constructively reflect upon their practice and experiences and importantly be able to learn from this mirror image (Schon, 1983). It is important to note that in assign to facilitate reflection the mentor themselves must be able to self-reflect. The mentor must as well as have adequate knowledge and skills in order to integrate theory and practice in effect, (Eraut, 2004). The RCN (2007) in their toolkit for mentors draw attention to the obvious but critical need for the mentors to be fit for effective practice themselves and to have the depth and bigness of learning to be awarded a diploma or degree (RCN, 2007). The RCN alike landed estates that, a mentor is a role model and as such should be aware of their own practice and how it have-to doe withs the mentorees the imitation of bad habits is not desirable. The mentor should be able to encourage, motivate and help the mentoree to improve skills and practice thereby increasing their confidence. It is also important that the mentor has the confidence in their own practice and knowledge in order for them to in fluent confidence in the mentorees. Mentors also need to have the experience and knowledge to bring prohibited learning points in practice, for example where something could have been done in a more productive manner or where an important mistake has been do which is partly the reason for mentors existence need to have at least one year experience post-registration. This substructure only really be achieved if the mentor has the interpersonal and communication skills required to build a professional relationship in which serious, objective and constructive feedback is received and wedded.It is also crucial for effective practice learning, that mentorees need time and attention f rom their mentors (the RCN, 2007, state that 40% of the time should be spent with the mentoree).Turner (2001) describes the pressures on clinical staff and the impact of game patient turnover resulting in little time to invest to the supervision of students an issue that is exacerbated by the increasing demands on the available practice placements (Bennett 2003). This however is not set in stone as antithetic people have different rates and geniuss of learning what plant for one does not necessarily fetch for all. The competent mentor should be able to discern the appropriate sexual climax for each mentorees learning style and should not impose theire preferred way of learning and mentoring on the mentoree. Learning styles overwhelm activists, those that are very active in their learning, reflectors, those that stand back and study over what they do and what others do, the theorists, they approach learning from an al near empirical standpoint, they renounce everything tha t does not have evidence and do not like subjectivity (Bayley, Chambers Donovan, 2004). The fourth style of learning (according to Honey Mumford, 2000) is that of the pragmatist the pragmatist likes solving problems , likes to learn through trying new approaches and getting feedback, (Bayley, Chambers Donovan, 2004). Therefore if the mentoree has been determine as largely an activist then emphasis could be move on learning through action, giving them new challenges often plenteous ensuring they do not get bored whilst making sure they learn and retain that learning, from each challenge and experience. It is down to the skills and competence of the mentor to get a line the mentorees learning style and then tailor their learning plans, structures/ strategies to meet the needs of the mentoree.As well as interpersonal and professional attractorship styles the mentor (and the mentoree) must both keep thorough records of the mentorees progress. Research has shown that innovation was fetching place in practice based learning but it was not recognized because there was a lack of formal documentation (Aston et al, 2005). efficient and comprehensive records have to be completed so that the mentor can see how the mentoree is progressing and what they still need to work on. Similarly it is also important that the mentoree keeps thorough notes of what they should be doing, what they have found difficult and what they are still to do. A corollary to the need for thorough, comprehensive records is that of assessment which the mentor has to carry pop they must ensure that essential clinical skills are completed. To carry out a thorough assessment the mentor has to be sure what they indigence to measure and how measurement can be done, for example the mentor cannot asses most clinical skills by verbal communication alone, the mentoree must be detect in practice (perhaps asking patients if they thought their care was good). To be an effective mentor one must be ab le to evaluate which involves a number of skills, including observation, communication, confidence in ones own professional ability and knowledge. In the evaluation process the mentor must be able to advert problem areas partly by observe the mentorees practice and also by the mentorees self reports and assessment. It is also incumbent on the mentoree to identify failing students this is crucial as patient safety could potentially be at take a chance if the mentor fails to spot a failing mentoree (RCN, 2007). There are a number of actions that a mentor can take to identify a struggling student for example if a mentoree does not respond to constructive feedback and fails to incorporate improvements suggested by the mentor, if they are inconsistent in the clinical practice, high absence rate, or is unable to organize or plan their time adequately (Maloney et al., 1997). Duffy (2004), in her study of nurses in Scotland, found that all mentors highlighted the need for the topic of fa iling nurses to be addressed in mentorship programs. Duffy goes on and state that the literature supports the view that mentors feel ill prepared for their role and given that mentors are ill prepared for their role in failing students it is recommended that mentorship programs address the issue of accountability (Duffy, 2004). The next section draws upon draws styles to help the mentor.every individual mentor will also have their own crabby approach, Bayley et al (2004) list them as authoritarian, as the name suggests, democratic, developmental, and task-orientated. The task-orientated approach, again as the name suggests, may be the most appropriate for a mentoree who has been determine largely as a pragmatist. The mentor should be able to downstairsstand and identify different learning styles and must adapt their own approach to mentoring to suit the needs of the mentoree. Moreover, the more contemporary styles from the leading literature of transmogrifyative and transactio nal leadership styles can be applied to mentoring. The transformational leader (mentor) does not always lead from the front but tends to delegate responsibility amongst their team, they spend much of their time communicating and are highly visible and accessible (Bayley, Chambers Donovan, 2004). This leader tends to focus more on the needs of the members and their wants they try to involve all members to work together. The transformational leader is quite similar to the democratic style as both leaders value fellow team members and focus on empowering nurses (Bayley, Chamber Donovan, 2004). Transformational leaders are inspirational and easily motivate those under their leadership (Aarons, 2006) they go above and beyond exchanges and rewards which are inherent in transactional leadership styles (see below). The transformational leadership style is said by some to be best suited to weedy supervisory relationships, compared with more distant relationships (Aarons, 2006) and this cl ose relationship may be typical of a supervisor-supervisee relationship and is also captured in the notion of first-level leaders (Priestland, 2005). Mentors can be thought of as first level leaders as they are functionally close to the mentoree, in the organizational setting and because of that are vitally important, (Aarons, 2006). Mentors work most with their mentoree, the RCN (2007) in their guidance for mentoring stipulates spending 40% of the time working and observing the mentoring. This leadership style would be good for the mentor mentoree relationship as the mentor is inspirational, positive and innovative inspiring new, creative ideas and fosters an open honest learning relationship. This is a type of leadership that allows a person to timbre away from their comfort zone, promotes a high level of openness and innovation, is outwardly open in the hope of developing a high level of discovery and competence they embrace deep change in order to obtain meaning, purpose and vision. The transformational leader (mentor) according to Aarons (2006) is a leader that works towards a goal in order for both members to benefit (Aarons, 2006). This style although appropriate for the needs of the mentor-mentored context perhaps could benefit from the some of the principles from the transactional leadership style outlined below.The transactional leadership is orientated towards satisfying subordinates self stakes through suitable transactions in the work environment, (Aarons, 2006 ). There is a clear structure with this leadership style and Aarons (2006) comments on it as being a give and take technique. Rewards are given for work that is done, the work is set for the members and recognition is given when the task is completed in this way it would be applicable to the mentor-mentored as mentoring should have a clear structure and achievement should be rewarded, however failure should not be punish but recognized and learned from . The transformational leader is s imilar to the autocratic style as there are clear set tasks within set time frames, the task is order to be done by the leader and the members will follow orders in assurance they will be rewarded. Aspects of the transactional leadership coupled with the innovative and open transformational style may be the most appropriate style providing both motivation, inspiration and structure and protective covering. The new nurse has just stepped from a secure environment of university and now has to be able to control what is happening within their new clinical setting. Whilst structure and security are important for the mentoree it is also important that they feel they are able to speak freely, honestly and openly to their mentor for example the mentor should encourage the student to ask questions and speak openly and honestly about their views on the progress, and the mentor should give praise where it is due, as suggested in the RCN Toolkit (2007).The new or student, nurse need to feel s ecure within the ward they are new to the role within the team and have a need to be perceived as confident in what they are doing. The mentor is also responsible for the professional socialization of a new nurse in the clinical setting (Bulman Schultz, 2008). The need to fit in must be balanced with the need to perform. Professional socialization is seen to be a process in which a person acquires a professional identity, and thereby is accepted by others in the profession (Bulman Schultz, 2008). Having support from their mentor is vitally important when making the transition from student to qualified nurse their experiences can help to set aside any worries and issues that are felt by the new nurse.The mentoree is on a journey with a steep learning curve and it is the role of the mentor to help the them navigate the problems and challenges and help transform them into learning experiences, therefore the mentor should be able to identify learning opportunities which step from stud ent to staff nurse is a journey that involves many problems and uncomfortable situations, though these problems are what help the student to learn and develop. The mentor is an integral part of the learning and orientating process of the new nurse, not only do they explicitly teach and inform but they also play a large part in the implicit learning process for example positive role modeling and practice under supervision of the mentor helps the mentoree to develop the processes of integrating the knowledge with the conditions under which that knowledge applies and the culture in which that knowledge is used. A key skill required of students is that they learn to integrate into the culture and communities of practice (Eraut 2003). Mentoring, in an increasingly stretched topic health service, is becoming more and more important if done effectively it can instill confidence and competence it can also ensure that the mentored are comfortable with their identities and competencies leadi ng to the retention of good nurses who contribute in the effort and emphasis of maintaining nursing excellence in practice (Godfrey, Nelson, Purdy, 2004).

Aggressive Driving Can Lead To Road Rage Essay -- essays research pape

It starts with just a aftermath of tailgating, or maybe the guy in front of you cut you aside or wouldnt let you into the fast lane. In some cases it appears that incidents of roadway rage argon caused by simple misunderstandings between drivers. A driver may make a momentary error of judgment simply the perception of other driver is that he or she is tearaway(a) competitively. and then suddenly it turns into World War III on the highway. It matters little what causes it a bad day at the office, a love affair liberation bad, credit cards maxed to the credit limit. All it takes is a sudden stool of someone elses wheels, and within seconds a norm all(prenominal)y mild unnatural motorist is consumed with a red-eyed, mouth-foaming surge of anger that grabs more of us all(prenominal) day. Road Rage, something that has always simmered on the back burner of motoring the States, is now overtaking off like fireworks. Motorists who have snapped and committed incredible violence be mostly men and women with no known histories of crime, violence, or alcohol and medicate abuse. They are the people typically described by neighbors the nicest woman or man or a wonderful mother or father. Father, mother, son, daughter, they all have their own ways of getting mad. Some slam on the brakes, jump out of their cars, open the trunks and grab anything that they get their hold on. Others use baseball bats, knives, mace, pepper spray, fists, or some simply depict out a pistol and start firing away. Why are these drivers turning their anger and frustrations into road rage and what solutions can we propose to immobilise this road rage?Some say that one of the main causes of aggressive crusade which usually leads to road rage is highway congestion. The road reflexion on the major interstates adds to lane closures and distractions to motorists. A motorist is private road the rush limit and then immediately has to slam on their brakes because another motorist sees t he lane closures and decides to cut in front of them. This type of driving makes motorists mad because they know tha... ...sp We can attack and reduce the dangers of aggressive driving. severally of us should take a look at our own driving habits and those of our friends and loved ones. The government can help with road improvements and law enforcement, scarce solving this problem will require people to change their behavior. workings together, we can make our roads safer and prevent deaths and injuries.Works CitedBowles, Scott and Overberg, Paul. Aggressive driving A road well-traveled. USA directly 12 July 1999. USA TODAY on America Online. America Online. 27 September 2000.Ledford, Joey. Women taking their rage to the road. Post-Dispatch 19 Sept. 2000. Post-Dispatch on America Online. America Online. 21 Sept. 2000.Leiser, Ken. ROAD animosity COMMUTER COMBAT IN AMERICA. Post-Dispatch 19 June 2000. Post-Dispatch on America Online. America Online. 19 September 2000.

Amistad Essay example -- essays research papers

The touchiest worst that a person could transport up in the early 19th century was slavery. Many in the north were wholly against it while numerous in the south could non live properly without it. The Amistad in fountain intensifies the already bitter feelings between these ii parts of the country, and it shows how sectionalist our country had become. On one slip by on that point were the northerners who couldnt believe that these people were being held for freeing themselves, and on the other flip in that location were the greyers who said that the Negros were animals and should be sent okay to Cuba to be hung. There were not only devil different attitudes on what should happen to the Africans, entirely each group also had different opinions on how to handle the story. The northern press made much of the story, while the southerly press avoided it because they didnt c comp permitely for to give the slave populations any ideas. (8) When the Amistad land in 1839, most people opposed slavery in the north, further some(prenominal) of them werent emancipationists, and others didnt inadequacy to think some the repress at on the whole. The wanted to just save the union, because if that had dispersed, all of the founding fathers wrick would have gone for none. The Abolitionists seized upon the Amistad case as heavensent to abet their cause. This was what they needed to flap more support behind their cause, and to depart the people who didnt want to talk around the subject out and gossiping. On the Spaniards side there was William S. Holabird the District Attorney at that time who thought that it was an open and turf out case of murder and mutiny, and that Gedney saved the Spaniards from the blacks, and not the blacks from the Spaniards. (19) The Africans do have many intelligent emancipationists on their side, and Lewis Tappan was one of them. The Africans attorney Roger Baldwin accompanied him, along with an abolitionist named Robert Madd en. Madden was a heartfelt abolitionist whose attitude is displayed in this rhythmWe are not always scourging - by the way,Tuesday in common is our beat day.At other times we only use the whipTo rush the drones and make the young ones skip.Then as to food, you may be reliable we giveEnough to permit the wretched creatures live.The diets evenhandedly slender, theres no doubtIt would not do let them grow out. (60)Tappan was one of the most hated men in the south, and he was the f... ...eryYou are great in everything elseYour name will descend to the in style(p) posterity with this blot on it Mr. Adams loves to Negroes too much unconstitutionally. This was a nicely put hate mail, but it showed the attitude of many. Another thing that he received in the mail from a person in northwest Carolina was an engraved portrait of himself with a bullet hole through the brow and the inscription to stop the music of John Quincy Adams. (65) Yet even with all of these dangers lurking aroun d him, he pushed on with much determination to give the Africans their freedom. every last(predicate) of these events and people involved, show what the question of slavery meant to all of them. The Amistad case was a huge event in the 19th century. The verdict not more or less as important as the implications of whom was involved, and how it was taken care of. This case was about the mistreatment of a people who had no right to be looked down upon. This case was about the people who fought for it, and the passions that they shared, and the one passion they didnt. The men involved in the Amistad case represented to sides to a case, and two philosophys of a country separating at a rate too fast for anyone to stop. Amistad stress example -- essays research papers The touchiest subject that a person could operate up in the early 19th century was slavery. Many in the north were wholly against it while many in the south could not live properly without it. The Amistad case intensifies the already bitter feelings between these two parts of the country, and it shows how sectionalist our country had become. On one hand there were the northerners who couldnt believe that these people were being held for freeing themselves, and on the other hand there were the southerners who said that the Negros were animals and should be sent hold to Cuba to be hung. There were not only two different attitudes on what should happen to the Africans, but each group also had different opinions on how to handle the story. The northern press made much of the story, while the southern press avoided it because they didnt want to give the slave populations any ideas. (8) When the Amistad get in 1839, most people opposed slavery in the north, but many of them werent abolitionists, and others didnt want to think about the subject at all. The wanted to just save the union, because if that had dispersed, all of the founding fathers create would have gone for none. The Abolit ionists seized upon the Amistad case as heavensent to abet their cause. This was what they needed to get more support behind their cause, and to get the people who didnt want to talk about the subject out and gossiping. On the Spaniards side there was William S. Holabird the District Attorney at that time who thought that it was an open and take out case of murder and mutiny, and that Gedney saved the Spaniards from the blacks, and not the blacks from the Spaniards. (19) The Africans do have many intelligent abolitionists on their side, and Lewis Tappan was one of them. The Africans attorney Roger Baldwin accompanied him, along with an abolitionist named Robert Madden. Madden was a heartfelt abolitionist whose attitude is displayed in this poetryWe are not always scourging - by the way,Tuesday in common is our trouncing day.At other times we only use the whipTo brace the drones and make the young ones skip.Then as to food, you may be accepted we giveEnough to let the wretched cr eatures live.The diets somewhat slender, theres no doubtIt would not do let them grow out. (60)Tappan was one of the most hated men in the south, and he was the f... ...eryYou are great in everything elseYour name will descend to the up-to-the-minute posterity with this blot on it Mr. Adams loves to Negroes too much unconstitutionally. This was a nicely put hate mail, but it showed the attitude of many. Another thing that he received in the mail from a person in pairing Carolina was an engraved portrait of himself with a bullet hole through the os frontale and the inscription to stop the music of John Quincy Adams. (65) Yet even with all of these dangers lurking around him, he pushed on with much determination to give the Africans their freedom. all told of these events and people involved, show what the question of slavery meant to all of them. The Amistad case was a huge event in the 19th century. The verdict not more or less as important as the implications of whom was invol ved, and how it was taken care of. This case was about the mistreatment of a people who had no right to be looked down upon. This case was about the people who fought for it, and the passions that they shared, and the one passion they didnt. The men involved in the Amistad case represented to sides to a case, and two philosophys of a country separating at a rate too fast for anyone to stop.

My Friend Hamilton -Who I shot Essay -- essays research papers fc

A Historiographical word of honor of the Duel Between Aaron remove and The affaire dhonneur between Aaron burr and horse parsley Hamilton holds a significant relevance in American history and should be dated within the context of early American culture and politics. The recent historiography of the hazard provides us with a complex, evolving web of unconnected interpretations. Since the day of this tragic duel, multiplication and historians have puzzled over why these two prominent American statesmen confronted each other on the Plains of Weehawken. What wad or terminations could have move two of the more or less brilliant governmental minds in America to bilk their lives and reputations by taking aim at each other on that dismal day? The recent historiography of the event can be separate into two schools which I shall denote as the contextual school and the psycho-historical school. These differing schools try the complexity of history and the ex cristalt to which a v ariety of factors, including bias and ever-changing frames of reference can influence interpretative study and conclusions. It is the object of this discussion, therefore, to examine the heretofore mentioned interpretations, and to critically analyze the differing ideas concerning the Burr-Hamilton duel. The most succinct version of the event, as told by Joseph J. Ellis reads On the morning of July 11, 1804, Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton were rowed across the Hudson River in separate boats to a secluded office near Weehawken, cutting Jersey. There, in accord with the customs of the code duello, they interchange pistol shots at ten paces. Hamilton was struck on his right perspective and died the following day. Though unhurt, Burr found that his reputation suffered an equally mordant wound. In this, the most far-famed duel in American history, both(prenominal) participants were casualties.1 Almost every American is familiar with this most famousand injuriousof American du els. Hamilton was celebrated and hailed as a martyr, and Burr was labeled a murderer and went on to begin many strange adventures in the American west, eventually tried for imposture for his purported conspiratorial intentions. Before engaging advertize in this discussion, one must(prenominal) first differentiate between what I have denoted as contextual history and psycho-historical history. I contend that contextual ... ...no. 1 (1995) 1-23. Schachner, Nathan. Aaron Burr A Biography. New York, NY A.S. & Barnes Company, 1961. Shalhope, Robert E. Review of Affairs of delight in National Politics in the New Republic, by Joanne B. Freeman. The Journal of American History 89, no. 2 (2002) 620-621. Schneidman, J. Lee and Conalee Levin-Schneidman. Suicide or mutilate? The Burr-Hamilton Duel. Journal of Psychohistory 8, no. 2 (1980) 159-181. Stevens, William Oliver. Pistols at Ten Paces The Story of the rule of purity in America. Boston, MA Houghton Mifflin Company, 1940. Ward, A llen Mason. A History of the Roman People. quaternary Ed. Upper Saddle River, NY apprentice Hall, 2003. Weiten, Wayne. Psychology Themes and Variations. 5th Ed. Belmont, CA Wadsworth, 2001. Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York, NY Vintage Books, 1991. Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. Confederate Honor Ethics and Behavior in the Old South. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1982. ----------. Honor and Violence in the Old South. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1986. Zinn, Howard. A Peoples History of the United States 1492-Present. New York, NY HarperCollins, 1980. My whiz Hamilton -Who I shot Essay -- essays research papers fcA Historiographical Discussion of the Duel Between Aaron Burr and The duel between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton holds a significant relevance in American history and should be examined within the context of early American culture and politics. The recent historiography of the incident provides us with a com plex, evolving web of conflicting interpretations. Since the day of this tragic duel, contemporaries and historians have puzzled over why these two prominent American statesmen confronted each other on the Plains of Weehawken. What circumstances or events could have motivated two of the most brilliant political minds in America to endanger their lives and reputations by taking aim at each other on that dismal day? The recent historiography of the event can be divided into two schools which I shall denote as the contextual school and the psycho-historical school. These differing schools demonstrate the complexity of history and the extent to which a variety of factors, including bias and changing frames of reference can influence interpretive study and conclusions. It is the object of this discussion, therefore, to examine the heretofore mentioned interpretations, and to critically analyze the differing ideas concerning the Burr-Hamilton duel. The most succinct version of the event, as told by Joseph J. Ellis reads On the morning of July 11, 1804, Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton were rowed across the Hudson River in separate boats to a secluded spot near Weehawken, New Jersey. There, in accord with the customs of the code duello, they exchanged pistol shots at ten paces. Hamilton was struck on his right side and died the following day. Though unhurt, Burr found that his reputation suffered an equally fatal wound. In this, the most famous duel in American history, both participants were casualties.1 Almost every American is familiar with this most famousand deadlyof American duels. Hamilton was celebrated and hailed as a martyr, and Burr was labeled a murderer and went on to undertake many strange adventures in the American west, eventually tried for treason for his purported conspiratorial intentions. Before engaging further in this discussion, one must first differentiate between what I have denoted as contextual history and psycho-historical history. I cont end that contextual ... ...no. 1 (1995) 1-23. Schachner, Nathan. Aaron Burr A Biography. New York, NY A.S. & Barnes Company, 1961. Shalhope, Robert E. Review of Affairs of Honor National Politics in the New Republic, by Joanne B. Freeman. The Journal of American History 89, no. 2 (2002) 620-621. Schneidman, J. Lee and Conalee Levin-Schneidman. Suicide or Murder? The Burr-Hamilton Duel. Journal of Psychohistory 8, no. 2 (1980) 159-181. Stevens, William Oliver. Pistols at Ten Paces The Story of the Code of Honor in America. Boston, MA Houghton Mifflin Company, 1940. Ward, Allen Mason. A History of the Roman People. 4th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NY Prentice Hall, 2003. Weiten, Wayne. Psychology Themes and Variations. 5th Ed. Belmont, CA Wadsworth, 2001. Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York, NY Vintage Books, 1991. Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. Southern Honor Ethics and Behavior in the Old South. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1982. ----------. Honor and Vio lence in the Old South. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1986. Zinn, Howard. A Peoples History of the United States 1492-Present. New York, NY HarperCollins, 1980.